The Panagea Tales Box Set: The Complete Epic Fantasy Series

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Li, Z. X., Evans, D. A. D. & Halverson, G. P. Neoproterozoic glaciations in a revised global palaeogeography from the breakup of Rodinia to the assembly of Gondwanaland. Sediment. Geol. 294, 219–232 (2013). The climate also influenced where animals lived. During the late Triassic, Reptile-like animals in the family Procolophonidae lived in one region, while mammal relatives, known as cynodonts, lived in another, a 2011 study in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found. Cynodonts inhabited one tropical area of Pangaea, where monsoon-like rains fell twice a year. Up north, procolophonids lived in temperate regions where it only rained once a year. It's likely that the cynodonts needed a water-rich area, which restricted their movements on Pangaea, the researchers said.

Conrad, C. P., Steinberger, B. & Torsvik, T. H. Stability of active mantle upwelling revealed by net characteristics of plate tectonics. Nature 498, 479–482 (2013). Shows how plate tectonic motions during the past 250 Myr have been tightly coupled with degree 1 and degree 2 mantle flow, owing to basal tractions being nearly as strong as slab-pull forces. However, what can be said for certain is that the landmasses we take for granted will one day rearrange into an entirely new configuration. Countries once isolated from one another will be close neighbours. And if Earth still hosts intelligent beings, they will be able to travel between the ancient ruins of New York, Beijing, Sydney and London without ever seeing an ocean. Coal swamps typically form in perpetually wet regions close to the equator. The assembly of Pangaea disrupted the intertropical convergence zone and created an extreme monsoon climate that reduced the deposition of coal to its lowest level in the last 300 million years. During the Permian, coal deposition was largely restricted to the North and South China microcontinents, which were among the few areas of continental crust that had not joined with Pangaea. [45] The extremes of climate in the interior of Pangaea are reflected in bone growth patterns of pareiasaurs and the growth patterns in gymnosperm forests. [46] Early Triassic Lystrosaurus fossil from South Africa Pangaea existed for more than 100 million years, and during that time many animal groups thrived. During the Permian period, insects such as beetles and dragonflies flourished, as did the predecessors of mammals: the synapsids. But the existence of Pangaea overlapped with the worst mass extinction in history, the Permian-Triassic (P-TR) extinction event. Also called the Great Dying, it occurred around 252 million years ago and caused 96% of all marine species and around 70% of terrestrial species to go extinct, according to the Geological Society of America.

Deconto, Robert M.; Pollard, David (2003). "Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO 2" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6920): 245–9. Bibcode: 2003Natur.421..245D. doi: 10.1038/nature01290. PMID 12529638. S2CID 4326971. The modern-day conflict between Israel and Palestine emerged from the British Mandate for Palestine, which administered the former Ottoman Empire territory after World War I. But even after 75 years—and declarations of independence from each side—universal recognition eludes them. Scientists believe that the next supercontinent will form in about 250 million years. This supercontinent is likely to be called Amasia.

Liu, X. & Zhong, S. The long-wavelength geoid from three-dimensional spherical models of thermal and thermochemical mantle convection. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 120, 4572–4596 (2015). Zhang, N., Zhong, S., Leng, W. & Li, Z.-X. A model for the evolution of the Earth’s mantle structure since the Early Paleozoic. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 115, B06401 (2010). The breakup of Pangaea was accompanied by outgassing of large quantities of carbon dioxide from continental rifts. This produced a Mesozoic CO 2 high that contributed to the very warm climate of the Early Cretaceous. [56] The opening of the Tethys Ocean also contributed to the warming of the climate. [57] The very active mid-ocean ridges associated with the breakup of Pangaea raised sea levels to the highest in the geological record, flooding much of the continents. [58] Korenaga, J. Crustal evolution and mantle dynamics through Earth history. Philos. Trans. A 376, 20170408 (2018). Li, Z. X., Li, X. H., Kinny, P. D. & Wang, J. The breakup of Rodinia: did it start with a mantle plume beneath South China? Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 173, 171–181 (1999).Alfred Wegener: Die Entstehung der Kontinente. Dr. A. Petermann's Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt, 58(1): Gotha 1912 Hoffman, P. F. et al. Snowball Earth climate dynamics and Cryogenian geology-geobiology. Sci. Adv. 3, e1600983 (2017).

Levin, Harold L. (2010). The earth through time (9thed.). Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley. ISBN 978-0470387740.All this is helpful to know, because if an Earth-like exoplanet has plate tectonics, we won't know which stage of the supercontinent cycle it is currently in, and therefore we will need to know what to look out for to infer its habitability. We shouldn’t assume that the landmasses will be dispersed, mid-cycle, like our own. Pastor-Galán, D. et al. Supercontinents: myths, mysteries, and milestones. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 470, 39–64 (2018). Holmes, A. (1 January 1931). "XVIII. Radioactivity and Earth Movements". Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow. 18 (3): 559–606. doi: 10.1144/transglas.18.3.559. S2CID 122872384. Rosas, J. C. & Korenaga, J. Rapid crustal growth and efficient crustal recycling in the early Earth: Implications for Hadean and Archean geodynamics. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 494, 42–49 (2018). Paleogeography of the Earth at the Permian–Triassic boundary, around 250 Ma. Siberia has fused with Pangaea to complete the assembly of the supercontinent.

Mitchell, R. N. et al. Harmonic hierarchy of mantle and lithospheric convective cycles: Time series analysis of hafnium isotopes of zircon. Gondwana Res. 75, 239–248 (2019). Torsvik, T. H. et al. Deep mantle structure as a reference frame for movements in and on the Earth. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 8735–8740 (2014). Jaworski, Erich (1922). "Die A. Wegenersche Hypothese der Kontinentalverschiebung". Geologische Rundschau. 13 (3): 273–296. Bibcode: 1922GeoRu..13..273J. doi: 10.1007/bf01799790. S2CID 131160418. This Pangea Fact File for KS2 is full of engaging information which explains German scientist Alfred Wegener's theory of Pangea and how the scientific thinking about our land masses has changed over time.Pangaea". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on October 25, 2020.